The Sandstone Industry

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THE SANDSTONE INDUSTRY.

Nature and Varieties of Sandstone.

The constituent granules of sandstone have resulted from the disintegration of the older rocks under the influences of dynamic action, erosion, and weathering. The sedimentary deposition of these granules from suspension in water, supplemented by the cementing effect of other substances, aided by pressure, has given rise to what is known as sandstone. The hardest essential component of the older rocks is quartz, which is naturally therefore the most abundant granule-forming material, and while other minerals are to be found in sandstone most of the sandstones are almost entirely made up of quartz. Feldspar and mica are to be found in some sandstones, but the constitution of this rock on the whole is much simpler and more uniform than is the case with granitic and volcanic rocks.

The size of the constituent granules in sandstone is quite variable, and thus it is customary to distinguish between fine and coarse grained stone.

The nature of the material which binds the granules together is an important consideration, since it determines largely the strength, durability, and beauty of the stone, and consequently its commercial value. It is scarcely necessary to observe that no matter how hard the granules of a sandstone may be, if they are not firmly bound together the rock as a whole may be easily crushed and disintegrated. The commonly occurring cementing materials are oxides of iron, argillaceous material, calcium carbonate, and silica, the latter in a different physical condition from which constitutes the quartz granules themselves.

Argillaceous sandstone is that in which the cementing material is clay; such stone is apt to be weak and easily crushed, unless it happens that the original clay has been changed and hardened by metamorphic action.

The cementing material of calcareous sandstone is calcium carbonate, which, owing to its susceptibility to decomposition under the influence of an acid atmosphere, is not so desirable as some other materials.

Ferruginous sandstone is that in which the cement consists of one or another of the oxides of iron, or mixtures of them. These oxides of iron are to be found in many of the best sandstones. In addition to their cementing qualities, they are also responsible for the color of the stone when this is pink, red, brown, or some shade intermediate between them. Sandstones in which but little or no ferric oxide is present usually show a light color, due to the absence of iron compounds altogether or to their presence only in the ferrous or unoxidized condition. Light-colored stone frequently becomes darker in color upon exposure to the air, on account of the oxidation of ferrous compounds (oxide and carbonate) or iron pyrites to ferric oxide.

When the cementing material is silica, which is chemically the same thing as quartz, the stone consists entirely of silica. Such stone is extremely hard and durable, but difficult to work. It is not subject to change in color, which is light gray or bluish gray. When such stone occurs in thin layers it is easily quarried in sheets or slabs, in which form it is used extensively for curbing and flagging in our largest cities, and is known commercially as bluestone. Siliceous sandstone grades into what is known as quartzite, which has been hardened by heat and pressure.

Composition of Sandstone as Shown by Analysis of

Samples from Various Localities.

The following table of analyses of sandstone from a number of localities will serve to indicate its general composition:

Analyses of Sandstone.
No.	Kinds of stone	Locality	Silica	Alu- mina	Iron ox-ides	Man-ga- nese oxide	Lime	Mag-nesia	Pot-ash	Soda	Car- bonic acid, water, and loss.
			Per- cent	Per- cent	Per- cent	Per- cent	Per- cent	Per- cent	Per- cent	Per- cent	Per- cent
1	Manyard	East Longmeadow, Mass	79.38	8.75	2.43	----	2.57	----	4.08		2.79
2	Worcester	..do..	88.89	5.95	1.79	.41	.27	---	.86		1.83
3	Kibbiequartz	..do..	81.38	9.44	3.54	.11	.76	.28	---	---	4.49
4	Brownstone	Portland, Conn.	69.94	13.15	2.48	.70	.309	trace	3.30	5.43	1.01
5	Sandstone	Stony Point, Mich.	84.57	5.90	6.48	---	---	.68	Undetermined		1.92
6	Quartzite	Pipestone, Minn.	84.52	12.33	2.12	---	.31	trace	.11	.34	2.31
7	Buff	Amherst, Ohio	97.00	---	1.00	---	1.15	---	.64		.21
8	Berea	Berea, Ohio	96.00	---	21.68	---	.55	---	.55		.32
9	Euclid bluestone	Euclid County, Ohio	95.00	2.50	1.00	---	---	---	---	---	1.50
10	Columbia	Columbia, Ohio	96.50	---	---	---	1.00	---	.50		.32
11	Red	Laurel Run, Pa.	94.00	trace	1.90	---	1.10	1.00	---	---	1.92
12	Elyria	Grafton, Ohio	87.66	1.72	3.52	---	.17	.20	---	---	2.03
13	Sandstone	Fond du Lac, Minn.	78.24	10.88	3.83	---	.95	1.60	1.67	.06	---

Authorities for Analyses..Nos. 1 and 2, Leonard P. Kinnicutt, Ph.D.; No. 3, C. F. Chambers, Ph.D.; No. 4, F. W. Taylor; No. 5, F. W. Clarke, United States geological Survey, Bulletin No. 27; No. 6, Geology of Minnesota, vol. 1; No. 7, J. H. Salesbury, No. 8, John Eisenmann; No. 11, A. A. Breniman; No. 12, F. F. Jewett; No. 13, N. H. Winchell, Geology of Minnesota, vol. 1.

Uses to Which Sandstone is Put.

The following is a list showing the various uses to which the sandstone of the country is put:

Foundations, Superstructures, and Trimmings.
Solid fronts	Buttresses	Capping	Ashlar
Foundations	Window sills	Belting or belt courses	Forts
Cellar walls	Lintels	Rubble	Dimensions
Underpinning, Steps	Kiln stone		Sills

Street Work.
Paving blocks Curbing	Basin heads or catch-basin covers	Road making: } }	Macadam, Sledged stone
Flagging	Stepping stones	}	Telford
		}	Crushed stone
		}	Concrete

Abrasive Purposes.
Grindstones	Whetstones	Shoe rubbers	Oilstones

Bridge, Dam, and Railroad Work.
Bridges	Breakwater	Rails	Bank stone
Culverts	Jetties	Ballast	Parapets
Aqueducts	Piers	Approaches	Docks
Dams	Buttresses	Towers	Bridge covering
Wharf stone	Capstone

Miscellaneous.
Grout	Lining for blast furnaces	Water troughs	Glass furnaces
Hitching posts	Fluxing	Core sand for foundries	Sand for glass
Fire brick, silica brick	Random stock	Sand for plaster and cement	Adamantine plaster
Millstones	Lining for steel converters	Furnace hearths	Cemetery work

Value of the Sandstone Product, by States.

The following table shows, by States, the value of the sandstone produced during the calendar year 1894:

Value of sandstone production in 1894, by States.
States	Value	States	Value
Alabama	$18,100	Missouri	$131,687
Arkansas	2,365	Montana	16,500
California	10,087	New Jersey	217,941
Colorado	69,105	New Mexico	300
Connecticut	322,934	New York	450,992
Georgia	11,300	Ohio	1,777,034
Idaho	10,525	Pennsylvania	349,787
Illinois	10,732	South Dakota	9,000
Indiana	22,120	Texas	62,350
Iowa	11,639	Utah	15,428
Kansas	30,265	Virginia	2,258
Kentucky	27,868	Washington	6,611
Maryland	3,450	West Virginia	63,865
Massachusetts	150,231	Wisconsin	94,888
Michigan	34,066	Wyoming	4,000
Minnesota	8,415
Total			$3,945,847

Inspection of the foregoing table, which reveals a total value of $3,945,847, and a comparison with the total for the year 1893, shows a falling off in production of $1,249,304. This decrease is greater than for any other kind of stone. This is what would naturally be expected, in view of the fact that sandstone is more exclusively used for building purposes than any other variety of stone. Thus, granite is quite largely employed as paving material in the form of Belgian blocks, and for monumental and cemetery purposes; limestone, also, besides its use as building material, is used for road making, burning into lime, and for blast-furnace flux purposes, requiring large quantities of stone. In the census year 1889, 23 per cent of the limestone, 43 per cent of the granite, and 65 per cent of the sandstone were the proportions of each used for building purposes. Hence, it is, that building operations being restricted on account of hard times, the sandstone industry suffered more than the others. A surprisingly large number of sandstone quarries shut down operations entirely on account of the lack of demand, while, without any exception, the largest producers report a serious falling off in output, sometimes amounting to 50 per cent of the value of the output in 1893.

The following table shows the production of sandstone, by States, for the years 1890 to 1894:

Value of sandstone, by States, from 1890 to 1894.
States	1890	1891	1892	1893	1894
Alabama	$43,965	$30,000	$32,000	$5,400	$18,100
Arizona	9,146	1,000	35,000	46,400	-----
Arkansas	25,074	29,000	18,000	3,292	2,365
California	175,598	100,000	59,000	26,314	10,087
Colorado	1,224,098	750,000	550,000	126,077	69,105
Connecticut	920,061	750,000	650,000	570,346	322,934
Florida	(a)	-----	-----	-----	-----
Georgia	(a)	-----	2,000	-----	11,300
Idaho	2,490	-----	3,000	2,005	10,529
Illinois	17,896	10,000	7,500	16,859	10,732
Indiana	43,983	90,000	80,000	20,000	22,120
Iowa	80,251	50,000	25,000	18,347	11,639
Kansas	149,289	80,000	70,000	24,761	30,265
Kentucky	117,940	80,000	65,000	18,000	27,868
Maryland	10,605	10,000	5,000	360	3,450
Massachusetts	649,097	400,000	400,000	223,348	150,231
Michigan	246,570	275,000	500,000	75,547	34,066
Minnesota	131,979	290,000	175,000	80,296	8,415
Missouri	155,557	100,000	125,000	75,701	131,687
Montana	31,648	35,000	35,000	42,300	16,400
Nevada	(a)	-----	-----	-----	-----
New Hampshire	3,750	-----	-----	-----	-----
New Jersey	597,309	400,000	350,000	267,514	217,941
New Mexico	186,804	50,000	20,000	4,922	300
New York	702,419	500,000	450,000	415,318	450,992
North Carolina	12,000	15,000	-----	------	-----
Ohio	3,046,656	3,200,000	3,300,000	2,201,932	1,777,034
Oregon	8,424	-----	35,000	-----	-----
Pennsylvania	1,609,159	750,000	650,000	622,552	349,787
Rhode Island	(a)	-----	-----	-----	-----
South Dakota	93,570	25,000	20,000	36,165	9,000
Tennessee	2,722	-----	-----	-----	-----
Texas	14,651	6,000	48,000	77,675	62,350
Utah	48,306	36,000	40,000	136,462	15,428
Vermont	(a)	-----	-----	-----	-----
Virginia	11,500	40,000	-----	3,830	2,258
Washington	75,936	75,000	75,000	15,000	6,611
West Virginia	140,687	90,000	85,000	46,135	63,805
Wisconsin	183,958	417,000	400,000	92,193	94,888
Wyoming	16,760	25,000	15,000	100	4,000
Total	$14,464,095	$8,700,000	$8,265,500	$5,195,151	$3,945,847

A Sandstone valued at $26,199 was produced by Rhode Island, Nevada, Vermont, Florida, and Georgia together, and this sum is included in the total.

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